Human & Motif in the World of Mythology
Abstract
The term motif is a common term in art, literature, and even science and technique. Discussing motifs in the critique and analysis of literary works’ structural and content aspects has numerous benefits and applications. Therefore, understanding its semantic aspects and definitions is essential for engaging with and analyzing these works. In light of this necessity, this article attempts to explore, in closely related terms and clarify their relationships and areas of application.
Moti in addition to the various meanings and definitions of motifs are used in painting, visual and performing arts, as well as in literature, and their most important characteristic in these arts is their repetitive and evocative nature. In literature, this characteristic manifests in various elements and literary devices, contributing to the diversity of motifs. Given the wide range of elements that can function as motifs (such as situations, events, beliefs, images, archetypal characters, distinct characteristics of a character, recurring themes, etc.), the term motif overlaps with other related terms, including theme, taps, leitmotif, and archetype. This paper, after providing definitions and relationships of these terms, delves into how motifs are formed, applied, and function in literary works.
Keywords: Motif, theme, taps, archetype, literary device, unconscious.
Architecture: motif – Literature: theme – History: archetype – …
Introduction
Motif, which in most Persian literary translations is equivalent to terms like central theme, main theme, or decorative motif, is one of the important concepts discussed in the field of thematics or theory of themes. In this domain, discussions around motif, theme, subject, archetype, prototype, and taps are a way of reaching the level (or levels) of thought (not just meaning) and theory expressed in a text.
In modern literary criticism, motif and its function are crucial topics in examining the works and intellectual trajectory of the author, analyzing the content level of a work, understanding the relationship between form and content, and investigating the quality of that relationship. As a matter of fact, “an appropriate analytical strategy in literary criticism is the identification of motifs and the specification of their reciprocal thematic effects” (Shafer, 2005). In stylistics, since repetition is of great interest, motif becomes an important recurring element in the entirety of literature, in an individual’s works, or even in a specific work. The study of important recurring elements in the literature of two nations or two writers or poets from different cultures can also be a fascinating subject for comparative literature.
1. Motif in its Linguistic and Terminological Meaning
The etymological roots of the word motif are traced back to the Latin verb movere and the medieval noun motives, both of which refer to moving or pushing forward, urging, and motivating to activity. The modern use of the term motif has been borrowed from French and adopted into other languages.
Although most of the terms encountered in the history of literature and traditional literary criticism are defined in reference books, there are still several terms that may have undergone semantic changes in different fields, or may have been used in various ways within the same field, or may have different meanings in different countries. Additionally, a single writer might employ these terms with different meanings. Sometimes, even terms that are repeatedly used by a particular author must be carefully examined to clarify the range of meanings they carry, or even to identify contradictions in their usage. These characteristics largely apply to the term motif as well.
In the Oxford Dictionary, motif is explained in several sections: the first part defines the term in relation to various arts (such as painting, sculpture, architecture, and decoration). The term also appears in music with several meanings. Furthermore, it is applied in weaving and sewing. In the second section, the meanings of motif in the field of literature are addressed. As a result, the scattered nature of its applications, the lack of clarity in meaning, and the difficulty in arriving at a single definition make the term challenging to define precisely.
In painting and related arts (such as tazhib [Islamic illumination], miniature painting, sculpture, architecture, and carpet weaving), motif has two meanings: in one sense, it refers to the central idea or theme of a work of art—such as a motif of landscape, resurrection, destruction, love, etc. In another sense, it refers to an element or combination of visual elements that are repeated in a composition and have prominence and significance for the artist, such as the soup can motif in the works of Andy Warhol (the American painter, printmaker, and filmmaker, 1928–1987) or the triangle motif in some of the works of Feininger (the German-American painter, printmaker, and writer, 1871–1956). In Islamic architecture, the toranj and eslimi patterns used for decorative purposes on buildings are also motifs. These visual elements or combinations can appear beyond a single work, recurring in the works of one or more periods or specific styles, sometimes acquiring symbolic meanings. For example, “in the Middle Ages, the red rose symbolized the blood of Christ, while the white rose and lily were signs of the purity of Mary.” Similarly, the circular pattern in the miniatures by the master painter Mahmoud Farshchian and his followers in the Persian miniature style is a visual element that appears repeatedly.
In the field of visual arts, motif is an important element for art critics when interpreting and analyzing sculptures and motifs. For instance, the image of Saint Catherine is often depicted alongside a wheel. This characteristic is also significant from an archaeological standpoint, as many of the sculptures and designs left on the walls of buildings and pottery that convey historical, national, and cultural messages can be identified by the recurring use of motif. This process significantly aids in the interpretation and analysis of ancient engravings and in extracting cultural and historical insights from them.
2. Definition of Motif in the Field of Literature
Various literary encyclopedias and works that have analyzed motifs provide different definitions of the term. This section will refer to these definitions and analytical literary works.
2-1. Motif in Literary Terminology Dictionaries
In the Kaden Dictionary of Literary Terms, motif is defined as: “One of the dominant beliefs in any literary work, and a part of the meaning or central theme of the work. This meaning may include a character, an image, or a recurring linguistic pattern” (Kaden, 1998).
In the Baldick’s Dictionary of Literary Terms, motif is described as a situation, event, belief, image, or archetypal character found in multiple different literary works. In genres such as folklore or mythology, any element skillfully incorporated into the general theme of a work is considered a motif. For example, a character’s fever in Victorian-era literature is a motif, or in European lyric poetry, motifs like ubi sunt (lament for the lost) and carpe diem (seize the day) appear frequently. Whenever an image, event, or other elements are meaningfully (or emotionally provocative) repeated within a single work, it is called a leitmotif.
In the Shipley Dictionary of Literary Terms, motif is described as a word or mental pattern that repeats in similar situations, used to evoke or recall a particular state or mood throughout a single work or across works in a given literary genre.
In literary terminology dictionaries, motif is sometimes closely linked to terms like theme and topos (motif or topic). Sometimes, motif is considered a very broad term, encompassing everything from form to theme. In the Rothfeld Dictionary of Literary Terms, motif is explained as a chain that connects the parts of a work together. In another metaphor, the structure of a literary work (including plot, story, and conclusion) is likened to a skeleton, while the texture of the work (including volume, eloquence, word choice, and syntax) is compared to the skin, and the motifs are likened to the muscles.
In Bernard Dupré’s Literary Devices Dictionary, several meanings of motif are provided. In one sense, it is equivalent to theme or archetype, while in another, it refers to a dynamic, striking verbal pattern with an evocative and compelling structure within the overall work. This definition mirrors the concept of motif in music. The Narratology Dictionary also mentions that a motif is a minimal thematic unit, and when a motif recurs within a work, it is called a leitmotif.
2-2. Definition of Motif in Analytical Literary Works
In the book Types and Forms of Thematic Structures, which examines the nature and function of motifs in the works of Gide, Camus, and Sartre, the term motif has multiple meanings. Sometimes, motif is used to refer to a category that clarifies specific details. According to this approach, the category could be the hero’s social class, religion, occupation, or social relationships—such as a peasant, soldier, rebel, or prodigal son. This category could also reflect a prominent feature of the hero’s personality, such as being miserly, adventurous, or sentimental. It could be a key event or situation, such as conspiracy, war, crime, the death of siblings, or fleeting love. Or, it could refer to a combination of characters and interconnected situations with certain forms, such as Oedipus, Faust, etc.
Edward Stannard’s book, The Sounds of Despair (subtitled Four Motifs in American Literature), dedicates four chapters to the exploration of four specific motifs:
In his book Heavenly Journeys: A Study of Motifs in Hellenistic and Jewish Literature, Diane Oetinger focuses primarily on religious concepts and phenomena, such as: God, angels, water in the sky, the gates of heaven, demons, fire, closeness to angels, pleasant sounds in the sky, and similar concepts, considering them as motifs. In his book Aesop in England, the term motif is used more to mean a recurring theme, and in Herman Melville’s Moby Dick, the motif represents the theme of obsession. This theme may have several motifs, and the same motif (the white whale) can be used for different themes. The distinguishing feature of similar elements is one of the connecting factors between the plot and the actions or deeds of the story. It is also noted in narrative theory that one should not confuse theme and motif. The theme consists of a more general and succinct meaning unit that is expressed or reconstructed through a set of motifs; for example, glasses in The Prince of Brambilla are motifs, while seeing is the theme in this work. The motif should also be distinguished from topos, which is a specific combination of recurring motifs in literary texts.
2-3. The Relationship Between Motif and Topos
Some lexicographers, including M.H. Abrams (2005: 178), have considered motif and topos to be synonymous terms. Although both motif and topos refer to recurring elements, it is the nature of their repetition that distinguishes them. Topos, in Greek, means a general place, and refers to a recurring and formulaic character or theme that can be found in any text. In fact, toposes were the first use of motifs, which, due to repetition and imitation without innovation or defamiliarization, have become commonplace and stereotyped. In motifs, creativity is more evident. Formulaic characters such as the wise fool, the evil stepmother, and recurring themes like finding a lost treasure and the fall from grace are examples of topos in literature, which in some lexicons are listed under motifs.
2-4. The Relationship Between Motif and Archetype (Prime Example)
An archetype is a pattern of thought that simultaneously exists in the cultures and literatures of all nations. The concept of archetype was introduced by Carl Gustav Jung (1875-1961). He believed that archetypes exist in the unconscious minds of all humans and exert influence over their behavior, passed down from generation to generation throughout human history (Jung, 1984: 104). Although the concept of archetype is similar to that of topos, there is a subtle difference in their creation. According to Jung, the unconscious is not a static phenomenon but manifests itself according to the needs of the time (Jung, 1998: 120). As a result, its manifestations are diverse and innovative. However, topos, which reflects the realm of the conscious, is devoid of creativity and is repetitive and clichéd.
Some literary scholars have cited examples of topos as motifs, and because of the similarity between topos and archetypes, they have used the terms motif and archetype interchangeably. For example, Northrop Frye (1912) discusses the themes used within a single work and notes that one can describe the gesture and posture of a lion and its relationship with other animals using the term motif. In some cases, motif is used to refer to one of the characters in a literary work. Daf Meyeri, in his book Motif in the Humble Pleas of Achilles, considers Iphigenia, an archetypal character and daughter of the river god, as a motif.
3. Motif and Related Terms
A problem that has existed since the birth of the study of themes is the ambiguity found in the definitions of related terms. This ambiguity primarily arises from the lack of consensus among scholars regarding the use of a specific term to describe a concept, which is particularly evident with three terms: motif, theme, and subject. What one scholar calls a motif is exactly what another researcher might refer to as a theme, and yet another might call it a subject. Therefore, the definitions of motif have similarities with other literary terms, which sometimes leads to confusion about their specific applications.
3-1. The Relationship Between Motif, Theme, and Subject
The subject is a mental category that reflects ultimate thoughts about life, whereas the theme is more objective and, in fact, is one of the countless possible expressions of a specific subject. The subject is a general concept, encompassing the primary situations or states of human existence, such as love, death, life, hatred, friendship, loneliness, fall, deviation, guidance, and emptiness. These are absolute concepts that, when presented within the context of a particular culture or thought in a literary work, are called themes. For example, “death” in its broad sense is a subject, but “death is the only way to escape,” “death is not the end,” “everyone must die,” etc., are themes.
Subjects exist prior to the creation of a work, but themes emerge during the process of creating a work. Therefore, some scholars, regardless of the accuracy of their arguments, believe that what truly motivates the creation of a literary work is the subject, not the theme.
Some lexicons have identified classic themes or everlasting themes, which are themes that extend beyond a single work and are repeated and imitated over time across various cultures. Classical themes should not be confused with subjects because, in fact, these themes, when first created in a work, did not have an existence outside the text.
Thus, the subject is a broader, more abstract concept compared to the theme. The theme, in turn, is more abstract and often more succinct than the motif. For example, the time-lapse (theme) and the clock (motif) in dramatic works. As noted by Wall (1991), the roles of these two elements in significant literary works are similar, and both link diverse readers from different cultures and environments. While one cannot deny the role of topos and archetypes in a national context for the audience, it is clear that the impact of a creative phenomenon on the audience is not the same as that of a non-creative phenomenon.
Mechanism of Motif Formation
A motif has two aspects: one related to its presence in the writer’s mind and the other to its manifestation in the text. For the first aspect, I use the term motif, and for the second (its appearance in the text), the same term motif is used.
The term “motif” was first coined by Professor Alan Dundes (1934-2005), a folklorist and anthropologist at the University of California, to indicate the fundamental structural unit of a folktale. To better understand the relationship between these two aspects, we can refer to the explanations given by linguists concerning the terms “morph” and “morpheme.” According to these definitions, a morpheme is the second smallest unit of language after the phoneme (the smallest linguistic unit). It is the smallest meaningful or grammatical unit of language; that is, it either indicates a meaning (a free morpheme) or can be combined to form words (a grammatical morpheme). A morpheme is a mental, abstract concept, while its outward manifestation in language is called a morph.
For example, when we want to express the plural concept in Persian, we use markers such as “ها,” “ان,” “ات.”
The Concept of Morpheme and Motif
Each of these markers (like “ها,” “ان,” “ات,” etc.) is a form of a morph (in this case, a plural morpheme), but the concept of the plural morpheme in mind, which encompasses all of the above examples, is referred to as a morpheme. In fact, a morpheme is a purely mental concept, while the morph is the outward, concrete manifestation of that concept. The relationship between motif and motifm is similar to the relationship between morph and morpheme. The motifm exists in the writer’s mind, and the motif is its outward expression in the text. In fact, the motifm is expressed and revealed through the motif. In many cases, the motifm is revealed through multiple motifs in the text, and one could say that it continuously “changes clothes.” While recognizing this can become more complicated, the transformation enhances the aesthetic value of the work, increasing its analytical and critical potential, as well as the reader’s enjoyment. However, sometimes the motifm is expressed through only a single motif.
Symbolism in Mythology
A symbol has a content that transcends its immediate effects—it allows us to understand and feel something psychological, such as courage, heroism, or, in other words, it is a tool for giving form to a mental content, like the transformation of a symbol of victory into a piece of art. For example, a work like Guernica by Pablo Picasso serves as a symbol of opposition to the horrors of war. The function of a symbol, in terms of its genre, is: to show something specific within a whole and to represent a whole through something specific.
A symbol always represents a clear meaning. Often, a sign is not initially designed as a symbol, but over time it acquires symbolic value.
In modern architecture, I do not believe in using symbolic elements because symbols and signs are things that are constructed over time. Any shape, in its own era, can be a symbol representing a particular culture. If we use symbols in our work, it no longer represents a specific symbol, but rather a general concept. That is why I do not adhere to the idea of symbolic architecture as such. In my view, architecture, the purer and more direct it is, the better it conveys its message. I believe the intrinsic artistic and aesthetic values of any architectural work are more important than symbolic interpretations. Ali Akbar Sarami (Architecture and Culture) states that symbols are essentially linked to the passage of time, and their cryptic nature is a result of their long life. Modern architecture, which has not yet lived through long periods, cannot claim to have symbolic qualities. For example, domes and minarets—while they may have originally been created for technical reasons—eventually became symbols of mosques over many centuries.
The Emergence of Objective Consciousness in Humans
“With the emergence of objective consciousness in humans, people were freed from the rigid framework of living only in the present moment. Now, they had the ability to analyze the past and predict the future. But this ability also came at a price: the expansion of foresight created a kind of fear in humans. They could now foresee the future’s hardships, especially the final one—death.” (Peter Smith) This vision and way of thinking laid the foundation for the paralysis of the senses, and it was in response to this problem that symbols were created.
The essential aspect of a symbol holds more importance than its aesthetic quality. Looking at a symbol may be satisfying, even if the symbol itself does not have great aesthetic or artistic value.
The Symbolic Function in Literature and Art
The symbolic element of a sign elevates its aesthetic value. Symbols cannot be limited to visual symbols alone, as symbols play a significant role in the daily life of people. They are an integral part of the foundations of every human society. The spiritual content of a symbol can be expressed in architecture in various ways.
Summary
Considering the definitions of motif, which were discussed in previous sections, we can say that a motif in literature has three somewhat distinct meanings, and based on these, the instances of motifs in a literary work will vary. These three meanings or definitions can be presented as follows:
A) In the first definition of motif, which is related to Boris Tomashevsky’s structuralist theory of narrative (1868-1939), it should be considered as the smallest narrative unit (the motif of a sentence or narrative proposition) at the syntactic level. Tomashevsky believed that the idea conveyed by a motif is what unites the verbal material of a work. In other words, a work as a whole may have a single motif, while each part of it may also have its own separate motif. If we deconstruct a narrative based on this, we reach indivisible components, such as: “The afternoon comes,” “He kills the middle-aged woman,” “The hero dies,” “The letter was not received,” and so on. In narrative analysis, these are the indivisible elements of the story. In fact, each sentence of the entire narrative has its own motif.
B) The motif as a specific recurring element that includes a variety of items such as objects, events, sounds, images, colours, implied events, psychological states (madness, fear, sadness, joy, etc.), or general characteristics (black eyes, red hair, hunchback, mole, limp, etc.), character traits, speech patterns, behaviours, clothing, voice, emotional state, facial expression, and so on. What makes these elements motifs is their repeated appearance. An event, on its own, is not a motif, but when repeated, it triggers the audience’s sensitivity and suggests that there is meaning or purpose behind this repetition. These recurring elements are traces or signs that lead the reader to discover and understand something beyond the text. Therefore, the definition of motif is the repeated, significant, or attention-grabbing elements in any text. The appearance of motifs in poetry is more often of this type.
C) In the third definition, a motif refers to one of the dominant ideas, themes, or thought patterns in the text. Every literary work is a network of motifs. The term theme refers to the central subject of the text, which gives it coherence and harmonizes the various elements of the literary work. Alongside this main theme, there may be other motifs in the text, some of which are directly related to the main theme, while others are indirectly related or even unrelated to it. Each of these secondary motifs, if they become a dominant and prevailing element in the text, is considered a motif. What makes these motifs dominant is their repetition.
The common point in the second and third definitions of the motif is its repetitive nature and its guiding role in revealing the intellectual depth of the text and the author’s perspective. In the second definition, the repetition is more verbal, and the motif is present in the verbal and visual dimensions of the text. As a result, it is both more attention-grabbing for the reader and easier to identify within the text. However, in the third definition, the motif pertains to the content of the text and the realm of ideas, and discovering it requires deeper contemplation.
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